FISSILE MATERIAL DISPOSITION & CIVIL USE OF PLUTONIUM

• Main Story: MOX INDUSTRY
• I. How Much Plutonium Is There?
• II. MOX Fabrication
• III. MOX UtilizationIII
• Notes

The figures for plutonium inventory have been kept classified, but are gradually being disclosed. The US Department of Energy, as part of the Secretary's Openness Initiative, publicized US inventory of plutonium this February 1996 in its report, "The First 50 Years."(1) According to the report, 111 tons of plutonium had been produced during 1944 to 1994 in the US, and 12 ton consumed, leaving an inventory of 99.5 tons as of September 30, 1994. Out of this total, 38 tons of weapons plutonium are designated as "excess," and 13 - 14 tons of civil plutonium are also stored as "excess" plutonium. Thus a total of 50 tons of plutonium is destined for disposition in the U.S.

The figure for the Russian stockpile is estimated by Russian Center for Arms Control, Energy and Environmental Studies to be 126 tons, as of 1995. Six more tons are scheduled to be produced by 2000, leading to about 100 tons of plutonium to be an "excess".(2) They also have 30 tons of civil plutonium in stockpile, which has been extracted long ago.

The figures for the other three nuclear weapon states are generally evaluated as around 20 tons in total. But these three states do not officially consider them as "excess." France has a stockpile of civilian plutonium from reprocessing which amounts to almost 30 tons.(3)

The non-nuclear states with advanced civil nuclear programs such as Germany and Japan have also started to disclose their plutonium inventories. According to the White Paper published by Atomic Energy Commission of Japan in October, 1995, Japan has separated 13 tons of plutonium, of which only 1.5 tons have been used, leaving 11.6 tons as stockpile, as of the end of 1994. Of the stockpiles, 1.4 tons is in the UK at BNFL's Sellafield site, and 7.3 tons is in France at COGEMA's La Hague facility.

Germany held the policy of not disclosing data on their plutonium stockpile, but because of the end of the Cold War, and that the U.S. as well as Japan began declassifying the plutonium inventory, Germany started making its stockpile figures public.(4) At Hanau plutonium processing complex in the state of Hesse, there is about 2.4 tons of plutonium in various forms. In total, Germany has about 25 tons of plutonium in stockpile today, most of them stored in La Hague reprocessing plant.(5)

According to H. Bariot(Belgium), there will be around 140 tons of weapons plutonium to be disposed of in the coming 30 to 40 years.(6) However, during the same period, he predicts that a total of 1000 to 1400 tons, which is ten times the amount of weapons plutonium, will be produced as civil plutonium to be utilized as MOX fuel.

Currently, there are three MOX fuel assembly fabrication plants in operation in the world. They are Companie Generale des Matieres Nucleaires(COGEMA) Complexe de Fabrication Des Combustibles Plant located at Cadarache(France), Etablissement MELOX Plant at Marcoule(France), and Belgonucleaire Usine de Fabrication D'Elements PU Plant at Dessel(Belgium).

The CADARACHE plant had been in operation since 1963 mainly for producing fuel for fast reactors, but has been engaged in fabricating MOX fuel for light water reactors(LWR) since 1990. The capacity is 15 tons/year, and more than 30 tons of plutonium have been processed.(7)

MELOX plant has a capacity of 115 tons of MOX fuel per year for LWRs. It started operation in 1994 and has produced 76 fuel elements by the end of 1995.(7) It is expected that 160 assemblies are fabricated for the year 1996 but it is still at a start-up phase.

The BELGONUCLEAIRE plant is called P0(zero) plant and has a capacity of 35 tons per year. It has been in operation since 1973, fabricating MOX fuel for fast breeder reactors(FBR). MOX for LWRs has been commercially produced since 1984, for LWRs of Belgium, France, Germany, and Switzerland. By the end of 1995, more than 270 tons of MOX fuel assemblies have been manufactured. (8)

BELGONUCLEAIRE has a project to extend this plant by adding two new production lines called P1(one) with the capacity of 40 tons per year. It has been designed, but due to illegitimate licensing procedures, it has been brought to court, and the plant has never been constructed.

Another large-scale commercial MOX fuel fabrication plant is under construction in the UK, and is planned to start operation in 1997. It is the SELLAFIELD MOX PLANT (SMP) with an annual capacity of 120 tons. However, since Britain gave up the FBR projects in 1994, and there is no on-going MOX program in Britain, this plant is constructed solely to offer service to meet the needs of BNFL's foreign reprocessing customers, notably Japan and Germany.

In Germany, SIEMENS had two MOX fabrication plants; one small demonstration facility in operation and a new one which was almost complete for full scale operation with an annual capacity of 120 tons. But the demonstration facility was closed down in 1991 when there was a contamination accident. This old facility had safety concerns that could not meet the safety standards prescribed in the new German Atomic Energy Law.(9)

The new facility received partial license in 1987 and started its construction, but in 1993, the Higher Administrative Court declared three of the partial licenses to be unlawful.(9) In April, 1994, it was already apparent that it was impossible to gain approval of the state government of Hesse for operation because of safety and economic reasons. The utilities decided not to finance completion of the new plant nor to keep paying the maintenance costs. Siemens finally gave up the plan in 1995 and declared themselves "forced to abandon MOX fuel production in Germany."(10)

Accordingly, the total capacity worldwide to produce MOX fuel would be around 285 tons per year, even including the SMP which is not in operation till 1997. This capacity is far too short considering the amount of plutonium being separated at reprocessing plants in France and UK. This means that there is NO capacity to "moxify" weapons plutonium in any of these facilities even if US or Russia decides to do so.

Outside of these commercial scale MOX fabrication, there are small-scale fabrication plants in Japan and Russia.

RUSSIA has been using uranium fuels in their FBRs as opposed to other countries. Thus, the MOX fuel has only been produced in small quantities.(9) However, for the disposition of plutonium from dismantled nuclear weapons, Russia is strongly in favor of the "reactor option." There are numerous rumors of establishing joint ventures with Western industries such as Siemens to construct a fabrication plant. However, due to economic and political restrictions, there is no feasibility for such plans at the moment.

The research-scale fabrication plant in JAPAN, the PLUTONIUM FUEL PRODUCTION FACILITY(PFPF) is operated by the government-owned Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation (PNC) located in Tokaimura. It has produced MOX fuel for FBRs and demo assemblies for LWRs.

However, it was revealed in May 1994 by the Nuclear Control Institute that 70 kg of plutonium was held-up in the system. PNC as well as the Japanese government admitted that the problem had been pointed out by IAEA, but was unable to clean it out. The Facility was renowned for its highly advanced technology called the Glove Box Assessment System to monitor the small amount of plutonium that attaches inside the glove box.

This problem was still not solved as of November, 1995.(11) This exemplifies the fact that even with a highly advanced technology, an amount which can make as much as 10 plutonium bombs could be missing in a plutonium fuel fabrication plant. This raises a serious question of nuclear proliferation in the use of plutonium for reactor fuel. However, DOE stated at a public hearing that this issue will be dealt with only in general and will not go into details in the non-proliferation assessment of disposition alternatives.(12)

France, Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium are the only countries actually burning MOX fuel in LWRs at the moment. LWRs are originally designed to burn uranium fuel. As MOX fuel has different nuclear physics as regards to its behavior, LWRs have to get relicensed to burn MOX. The experiences gained through actual burning are analyzed and evaluated. Various research programs on MOX fuel behaviour are taking place. In a sense, the 18 reactors currently burning MOX are on-going research & development of MOX utilization in LWRs.

There are 54 LWRs in operation in France today. However, only the types called CP-1(one) series are licensed in principle to use uranium or MOX as required.(13) Other types such as CP-0, CP-2, P4 and P4' do not have the license to burn MOX. Consequently, only sixteen CP-1 reactors at Saint-Laurent-des-Eaux, Gravelines, Dampierre, Blayais, and Tricastin are able to use MOX fuel assemblies.

Starting in 1987 with Saint-Lauren B1 as the first, MOX fuel has been loaded in seven reactors to date. They are Saint-Lauren B2(1988), Gravelines 3&4(1989), Dampierre 1(1990), Dampierre 2(1993), and Blayais 2(1994).(14) The first shipment of spent MOX fuel has been delivered to La Hague in early 1996.

The current situation is that a third of the core can be loaded with MOX, and MOX fuel will be irradiated for three years before it is replaced. However, this will not be enough to utilize all the plutonium that will be separated by reprocessing. In order to avoid excess stockpile of plutonium, EDF (Electricite de France) believes that more reactors should be licensed to burn MOX and that the reactor core should be loaded half and half with uranium and MOX fuel.(14)

Germany is THE country with the most ambitious on-going MOX program worldwide. Since they have cancelled the Kalkar FBR in 1991, all of the plutonium extracted at COGEMA and BNFL's reprocessing plants are doomed to be consumed in LWRs. They already have about 25 tons in stockpile.(Refer to Note(5))

Currently, seven reactors are operating partially with MOX fuel, five more have the license and will start loading MOX fuel soon, and three more are applying for a license.(15)

Obrigheim reactor was the first to load MOX fuel assemblies as early as 1972. Massive utilization of MOX fuel in LWRs began in the late 1980s, when Unterweser and Neckarwestheim 1 reactors received the first MOX licenses to install 4 to 8 fuel assemblies. Grafenrheinfeld, Grohnde, and Philippsburg 2 reactors came next with licenses allowing to load up to one third of the core. Brokdorf, which started its operation in 1987, was the first reactor that possessed MOX license from the beginning.

Emsland, Isar 2, and Neckarwestheim 2, all of which started operation in 1988-89, have been constructed with MOX license, but have not loaded MOX yet. The first permit for boiling water reactors, Gundremmingen B and C had been granted in 1994. These five reactors will be loaded with MOX soon, with Gundremmingen B to be the first.

The three reactors applying for license but not granted yet are Biblis A and B and Muelheim-Kaerlich. All three belongs to RWE Energie AG who are having legal battles with the state governments of Hesse and Rheinland-Pfalz regarding the licensing and safety of these reactors.(16) Biblis-A is the reactor which suffered a loss-of-coolant accident in 1987 and mass public protest took place to shut down the reactor.

In Germany, public acceptance of nuclear power has become very negative, and with the revision of the Atomic Energy Law, it is virtually impossible to further expand the MOX program. The utilities have actually cancelled some of the newer contracts they had with BNFL's THORP in the end of 1994.

Switzerland has five reactors in operation and has been using MOX fuel assemblies in two of them since 1978. The first reactor to install MOX fuel was Beznau 1 (1978) and Beznau 2 followed in 1984. Switzerland plans to receive 2.2 tons of plutonium from its reprocessing contracts by the year 2003.(17) The MOX fuel assemblies have been supplied by Belgonucleaire, Siemens and BNFL. The reactors are licensed to load MOX fuel assemblies up to 40% core. The MOX fuel assemblies have been transported from the fabrication plants by both surface and air. The first two tons of MOX fuel assemblies from BNFL was transported by air in June, 1994. (Air transport of MOX in the next issue) Swiss nuclear policy permits all five reactors to burn MOX fuel.(17)

Belgium is the leading country in the MOX fuel fabrication industry. However, in terms of utilizing MOX in their own reactors, it is a different story. Belgium government decided only in 1994 that they would not make further reprocessing contracts, freeze the post-2000 contracts, and use up the 4.6 ton of separated plutonium from older contracts as MOX fuel to be burned in Belgium reactors.(18) Licenses to load MOX fuel assemblies were given in November 1994 and currently two reactors(Tihange 2 from March 1995 and Doel 3 from May 95) are burning MOX fuel.(19)

Japan is another country with an ambitious plutonium program. According to the Long-Term Program revised in 1994, Japan expects 70-80 tons of plutonium to be separated by the year 2010 from reprocessing. But the demand for plutonium is much less. Only 25 tons are to be used in FBRs and advanced thermal reactors (ATR) (20). The remaining 50 tons is to be burned as MOX in LWRs.

However in August 1995, the new ATR planned to be constructed at Ohma was cancelled due to economic reasons. Then in December same year, FBR Monju was shutdown for unknown period because of the sodium leak accident. Under this situation, the true amount of demand is to be even less than 25 tons. In fact, almost all of the plutonium for these programs must now be burned in LWRs.

The utilities and the Japanese government are desperate in pushing ahead with the MOX program. However, the public concern for Japanese nuclear policy have become more serious than ever. The governors of the three prefectures with reactors scheduled to be used for MOX program, issued a joint statement that the policy to pursue MOX program be reconsidered in light of the Monju accident in January 96. It was further reflected in the local referendum held in a small town Maki on August 4, 1996 when the residents rejected a new nuclear power plant to be constructed in their town.

Despite these situation, five MOX facilities in Europe were added to the US-Japan Nuclear Cooperation Agreement as a "subsequent arrangement" in July 96. Though this had been requested by the Japanese government late 1995, the formal request to Congress by DOE was made on July 16, 96. Congress approved this request on July 31 on condition that the security arrangements for transport of MOX fuel assemblies be as stringent as that required for shipment of bulk plutonium made in 1992. The facilities added to the Agreement are: Belgonucleaire Usine de Fabrication D'Elements Pu Plant(Belgium), Franco-Belge de Fabrication de Combustibles International Assemblage Des Combustibles Mixed-Oxide Plant(Belgium), Establissement MELOX Plant (France), COGEMA Complexe de Fabrication Des Combustibles Plant (France), and British Nuclear Fuels PLC Plant(UK).(21)

1. Plutonium: The First 50 Years - US Plutonium Production, Acquisition and Utilization from 1944 to 1994, US DOE, February 1996.
2. Use of MOX in the Disposition of Weapons-Grade Plutonium, H. Bariot (FEX, Belgium) for the International Seminar on MOX Fuel: Electricity Generation from Pu Recycling, June 1996, UK, citing Diakov A.S. Utilization of Already Separated Plutonium in Russia: Consideration of Short and Long-Term Options, March 1996.
3. Plutonium Fuels: An Independent Analysis of the Strategy and Performance of Plutonium Production and Use in France, Mycle Schneider, WISE-Paris, June 1996.
4. Nucleonics Week, August 15, 1996.
5. Notes by Michael Sailer of Oko-Institut e.V, September 7, 1996.
6. Use of MOX in the Disposition of Weapons-Grade Plutonium, H. Bariot for the International Seminar on MOX Fuel, June 1996, UK.
7. MOX Fabrication and MOX Irradiation Experience Feedback from the French Programme, J.L. Nigon & W. Fournier (COGEMA) for the International Seminar on MOX Fuel: Electricity Generation from Pu Recycling, June 1996, UK.
8. MIMAS MOX Fuel Fabrication & Irradiation Performance, J. van Vliet, D. Haas, Y. Vanderborck, M. Lippens, Cl. Vandenberg (Belgonucleaire) for the above Seminar.
9. MOX Industry or The Civilian Use of Plutonium, Christian Kueppers & Michael Sailer, IPPNW, 1994, Chapter 4.
10. Siemens Press Release, July 7, 1995.
11. Nuke Info Tokyo No.50 Nov/Dec 1995, Citizens' Nuclear Information Center, Japan.
12. Response to a question raised by an NGO at a hearing in Washington DC, August 1, 1996, regarding the Outline for Nuclear Nonproliferation and Arms Control Assessment of the Weapons-Usable Fissile Materials Storage and Disposition Alternatives, DOE, July 1996.
13. The MOX Industry or the Civilian Use of Plutonium, C. Kueppers & M. Sailer, IPPNW, 1994, Chapter 5.
14. Plutonium Recycling and Use of MOX Fuel In PWR - French Viewpoint, J.L. Provost (EDF) for the International Seminar on MOX Fuel: Electricity Generation from Pu Recycling, June 1996, UK.
15. The MOX Industry or the Civilian Use of Plutonium, C. Kueppers & M. Sailer , IPPNW, 1994, Chapter 5.
16. Nucleonics Week, August 15, 1996 & August 22, 1996.
17. Experience in the Use of MOX Fuels in the Beznau Plants of NOK, R. Stratton & H. Bay (NOK), International Seminar on MOX Fuel, June 1996, UK.
18. MIMAS MOX Fuel Fabrication & Irradiation Performance, J. van Vliet, D. Haas, Y. Vanderborck, M. Lippens, Cl. Vandenberg (Belgonucleaire) for the International Seminar on MOX Fuel, June 1996, UK.
19. Synatom 1995 Report.
20. Long-Term Program for the Development and Utilization of Nuclear Energy, 1994, Nuke Info Tokyo, No.41 June/July 1994.
21. Nuclear Fuel 7/29, 8/12, 8/26, 1996, DOE Federal Register, Vol.61 No. 134 7/11/96

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